how to calculate bonus based on net incomehow to calculate bonus based on net income

Because the money you put into these accounts is pre-tax, it can lower your taxable income while also putting your hard-earned paycheck toward a long-term savings goal. Thank you, This is the amount of your bonus before taxes and deductions are withheld, Enter the gross pay total of your paychecks for the current year excluding the current one. I purchased a travel trailer in Delaware with a bank loan. Still, employees might prefer to get their take-home bonus amount all upfront. Place the asset in service To take bonus depreciation -- or any depreciation -- you need to be using the asset. You must also withhold and pay 6.2% in Social Security and 1.45% in Medicare taxes on all bonuses paid. Or you can pay it in a separate check and withhold 22%. The wording in the bonus calculator is incorrect. But you might be in for a surprise when your paycheck arrives, and you realize, Wait a minute this gets taxed, too?. WebBonus Computations . Next, you will need to verify expenses as of December 31 of the current year. Because bonuses can occur at any point during the year, they get added to your salary piecemeal. Since you are basing your bonus payments on your net profits, it makes sense to schedule the bonuses around your company's profit statements. Enter the date on your paycheck. Employers withhold taxes on your paycheck throughout the year to prepay that tax on your behalf. Heres an analogy. Thank you, Stand: 02.02.2022. Prior to becoming a writer, she worked as an HR specialist at several multinational companies. Divide the net payment by the gross percent. Most often, bonuses are distributed on special occasions (e.g., a holiday) or built into certain compensation plans (e.g., for hitting a quarterly sales goal). At NerdWallet, our content goes through a rigorous, In the short term, that means a chunk of that bonus will be withheld from your check by your employer for taxes. Total taxes are 29.65% (7.65% + 22%). Our partners compensate us. Lead Assigning Editor | Retirement planning, investment management, investment accounts. The total amount you received in bonuses for the year will be combined with other earned income and listed in Box 1 of your W-2. Bonus Tax Rate: How Are Bonuses Taxed, Who Pays? You can avoid going through these four steps by using a payroll software, like Gusto. This year I received a one-time bonus, a severance package, a vacation buy out, relocation assistance, a signing bonus, and an annual Manager Incentive Plan bonus. If you have additional questions on how to calculate a bonus or other small business topics, submit them on our forum. Heres how that works. Retention bonus calculations work similarly but are usually paid out long after the employee is hired. Yes, the flat 37% rate applies even if an employee claims exemption in their federal Form W-4 from federal income tax withholding. Holiday Gift Giving and Tax Deductions for Business Gifts, Lisa has over 20 years of experience in tax preparation. You can opt to pay the employees regular tax rate by adding the bonus to his or her regular paycheck or pay it in a separate check and withhold 22%. In this case, you would divide the $5,000 calculated (10% of sales) and divide it by 10 employees to get a total of $500 payable to each. Eddy is the all-in-one HR Suite built to help local businesses easily manage their people, payroll, and hiring processes. Here, the employer combines your regular income and your bonus, but uses a formula to calculate the tax on each separately. Your Tax is the same with either method. With Ripplings custom reports, you can choose specific data fields and even add formulas to help you calculate percent-of-salary bonus amounts. You choose to use the option of paying his bonus separate from regular wages using the prior period pay information. On February 15, he receives a bonus of $2,000. Administering and calculating employee bonuses effectively is a great way to motivate and reward employees. do your taxes before him and once he does his taxes, he wont be able to claim her cause you already did. Subtract the amount withheld from wages on the most recent base salary pay date (February 1) from the combined withholding amount ($686 $251 = $435). The only Tax Return Lifetime Guarantee. When evaluating offers, please review the financial institutions Terms and Conditions. Employers typically use either of two methods for calculating federal tax withholding on your bonus: the aggregate method or the percentage method. $5,000 (total bonus) / 8 (total number of accounting employees) = $625 bonus. Both sign-on and retention bonuses are usually paid as flat rates, which means theres no calculation necessary if its all paid out at one time. 700+ Entries800+ Experts Consulted18,000+ Weekly Learners, 6 Keys to Manage and Calculate Employee Bonuses. Our gross/net calculator enables you to easily calculate your net wage, which remains after deducting all taxes and contributions, free of charge. Adjust the equation accordingly if you work fewer than 12 months or 52 weeks per year. (Only if you want to get insider advice and tips), How To Calculate Gross Pay for Employers + Calculator, How to Calculate Overtime for Hourly & Salaried Employees, How to Calculate & Process Retroactive Pay (+ Free Calculator), How to Calculate Payroll: Everything Employers Need to Know. Bonuses are taxable as supplemental wages, and the IRS gives you a couple of options on taxing the amount. For example, if you make $60,000 per year, your gross monthly income would be $5,000. So what is incentive pay? Get started now. Sabrina Parys is a content management specialist on the taxes and investing team. Performance-based bonuses can include individual sales incentives or sales commissions, department-wide incentives, and annual or quarterly performance compensation. What would be a safe amount to increase my deductions to for this payment?? In the long term, the bonus will be added to your total income for the year. Bonuses are generally taxed at a flat rate of 22% when the percentage withholding method is applied. I am in the 25% tax bracket in my pay. , consider using your bonus toward a qualifying contribution. -Age You should see the net pay you want your employee to have. If your total bonuses are higher than $1 million, the first $1 million gets taxed at 22%, and every dollar over that gets taxed at 37%. To calculate a bonus for an employee who earns X dollars in sales, multiply the sales total by the bonus percentage you established. (Source: Rippling). Figuring how much to withhold can be tricky, but our. Most taxpayers take the standard deduction, but if your individual tax-deductible expenses such as unreimbursed medical costs, donations or mortgage interest add up to more than the standard deduction, itemizing can help you to trim your taxable income and save on your tax bill. Michael's $2,550 paycheck triggers a standard withholding of $284. That bonus gets taxed at 22%, resulting in $440 of the bonus being withheld for taxes. Calculate the amount of withholding on the combined $4,000 to be $686 using the wage bracket tables. At the time of receipt of your bonus, federal taxes are typically withheld by your employer at a higher tax rate than your actual tax rate used when you file your taxes. The IRS also gives you the option to pay employee bonuses using a completely separate paycheck. Under tax reform, the federal tax rate for withholding on a bonus was lowered to 22%, down from the federal income tax rate of 25%. When it comes to bonus payouts, you can streamline the process by using a payroll system like Rippling. But once your employer forks over cash, offers you a gift card or hands over a high-value gift, things get murkier. It is up to you, the owner, or your company shareholders to determine how often and how much you will pay for bonuses. However, this does not influence our evaluations. [0]Internal Revenue Service. Accessed Mar 7, 2022.View all sources And this is often where confusion sets in. If you lay bricks, you may get a bonus for laying bricks faster than expected. Please this is my first time am filing, i only want to put my Wages and Federal Tax W/H. 8 Things Companies Should Know & Do About the Coronavirus, 4 Tips on How to Be a Good Manager While Working From Home, Human Resources Information System (HRIS). Option 1 - The percentage method. Because this can be a tricky strategy to navigate, make sure to consult a tax professional to ensure it's the right call for your financial picture. If you find discrepancies with your credit score or information from your credit report, please contact TransUnion directly. she lives with you. Are bonuses taxed differently than regular pay? Then, subtract taxes paid for the prior period from that amount. When it comes time to file your annual taxes, your total income, including your bonus, gets taxed according to your effective tax rate. Tax withholding on a bonus can have an effect on overall tax liability. Pre-qualified offers are not binding. Drawback: The disadvantage of this method is that most people's effective tax rate is not 22%. If you are paying a flat rate to all employees, divide the bonus amount by the number of employees receiving a bonus. Her previous experience includes five years as a project manager, copy editor and associate editor in academic and educational publishing. This could lead to some dismay since the bonus is determined by the type of position each employee holds, but it ensures every staff member receives a payout. Calculate how much of your net profit you will pay in bonuses. Bonuses are considered supplemental wages. If you opt to pay each salesperson 10% of the sales they earn, Kara would have earned $5,000. If you are paid on a yearly basis, you can determine your gross monthly income by dividing your annual earnings by 12. Lets follow the steps we discussed above. Employee bonuses are subject to a 22% federal withholding rate (can be lower or higher depending on whether you pay the bonus as a separate payment), and it may also be subject to state and local income taxes, depending on where the employee works and lives. Total taxes are 29.65% (7.65% + 22%). A little fiddling can go a long way toward keeping a tax bill at bay. When done correctly, a bonus program can help businesses achieve several key benefits. In other words, your employer gets to choose how it wants to do the math on your paycheck. Supplemental wages are still taxed Social Security, Medicare, and FUTA taxes. Lisa has appeared on the Steve Harvey Show, the Ellen Show, and major news broadcast to break down tax laws and help taxpayers understand what tax laws mean to them. Accessed Sept. 4, 2020. Withhold $435 from the bonus payment, meaning only pay the employee $1,565 ($2,000 bonus $435 taxes). The result will be the Borrowers monthly gross income. World is full of randomness. However, humans hate randomness and bad surprises and prefer more of predictability. Insurance companies help level th Read more. let us help by calculating employee bonuses for you and saving you hours a week on manual HR processes. The calculations can be complex, but the Department of Labor has online examples to help. Calculate Federal You will be taxed on the amount withdrawn and it will be added to any other income. Some of the best payroll software, like Rippling, gives you the option to run off-cycle bonus payments for free and will automatically withhold the 22% to help you maintain compliance. The federal government does not require employers provide bonus compensation, but if you do, employees can sue you if you do not pay bonuses as described in their contract or handbook. For example, if your policy states to pay new employees who relocated for the job a $2,500 sign-on bonus, you will distribute that amount. Here are the steps you need to follow to gross-up employee bonuses: For example, lets assume that you are a Florida employer whos paying a $500 bonus to an employee. A Multi-Author Blog for Sales & Marketing Professionals, 2021 Whitmarsh Consulting Group | ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. WHEN. If they do that, then the bonus would be taxed along with the rest of your income. "[0]Internal Revenue Service. Improved performance by rewarding high-performers. Yes. It really is bad advice to suggest that the flat 25% is somehow good for people or might save them something. Other types include annual, merit, referral, sign-on and retention bonuses. Thats pretty much all of the math youll need for calculating how much of a bonus to pay employees. How to minimize the tax impact of a bonus, Before or after your bonus is paid out, it could be worth doing a little maintenance on your, to adjust your withholdings. The benefit of this percentage method is that it's relatively easy for the employer, so you'll often see taxes withheld this way on bonuses. He claims he can claim her on his 2013 taxes. YEAR Once you add them together, youll need to determine the taxes that wouldve been withheld had the bonus actually been paid out. If youre a salesman, youll probably get a commission as a percent of the sales you make, and if you sell a lot one month, you may get a bonus on top of that. If you consider paying bonuses based on the number of hours each employee works, consider using When I Work. People are money motivated but also want experiences and security. Unlike your regular income, the IRS lumps bonuses (and other things such as severance pay and commission) into a category called "supplemental wages.". Check with a tax professional if you're ever unsure about the tax implications of a gift or award. Sign up to receive more well-researched small business articles and topics in your inbox, personalized for you. Performance bonuses encourage personnel to work toward achieving individual and company goals, and nonperformance bonuses can make everyone feel appreciated. Translation: Theres a smaller chance of a surprise tax bill because of your bonus. To learn more about how to calculate bonuses for employees, keep reading. Some non-cash bonus ideas include giving holiday turkeys, additional vacation days, tickets to local sports events, books, and gift certificates. Specify that the company bases the bonus on company profits and, if there are no profits in a bonus period, there will be no bonuses awarded to employees. The bonus structures I see that motivate people the most are extra cash, gift cards, and vacations. (Source: Rippling). He moved to Florida in May, Hi Tom, Learning how to calculate a bonus is fairly straightforward, as long as you know the approach youre taking. Supplemental income, bonuses included, are subject to a 22% federal flat tax and typical federal and state taxes. Employers typically use either of two methods for calculating federal tax withholding on your bonus: the aggregate method or the percentage method. This can all be a bit complicated, but if you dont want to worry about it, you dont have to! Lisa Greene-Lewis, Will I be able to claim my son this year? There are a lot of factors for receiving a bonus, but you have to keep in mind that there are very few ways to guarantee a bonus. As the employer, youll also have to pay your portion of FICA and unemployment taxes. WebTo calculate tax on a bonus, you first need to determine which income tax brackets the employee falls under. I have been told that if it has a bathroom etc it is eligible for a tax deduction is this true ? Her teaching expertise is advanced accounting and governmental and nonprofit accounting. http://www.irs.gov/taxtopics/tc411.html Of these sources of supplemental wages, the only one I expect to see again is the annual MIP bonus (~$20K annually). You should have all rights to claim her. New York, NY 10003-1502, California Privacy Rights | Privacy | Terms | Sitemap. The other option is for the employer to include the bonus with the employees typical paycheck. The second option is to hypothetically add the bonus amount to the employees regular wages for the prior pay period to help you calculate how much in taxes to withhold. Employers typically use either of two methods for calculating federal tax withholding on your bonus: the aggregate method or the percentage method. Join our free community of HR professionals. To use the tax calculator, enter your annual salary (or the one you would like) in the salary box above. All financial products, shopping products and services are presented without warranty. Rounding is not required, but is permitted by federal regulations, In some cases, public employees are exempt from Federal, Social Security and/or Medicare taxes. Is there a box for bonus/supplemental income? Most taxpayers take the, , but if your individual tax-deductible expenses such as. About the author: Sabrina Parys is a content management specialist at NerdWallet. My employee claim exempt and have the bonus payout. A "flat tax" of 22% on bonuses is stipulated per IRS Publication 15. You decided that the department would earn $5,000 for the year if the goal is met. Finally, you can figure out how much each employee should receive. She has written several nonfiction young adult books on topics such as mental health and social justice. Here are some of the pros that come with offering bonuses: Here are some of the cons of paying employee bonuses: Here are some common questions that employers ask about calculating bonuses. Meanwhile, to pay nonperformance bonuses, you might need to set an arbitrary amount, like $1,000, or calculate payroll payouts based on individual salaries or work hours. When your workers notice only certain departments or positions being paid extra money, they may begin to feel unappreciated. How to find the best tax preparer or tax advisor near you, Tax deductions are one of the best-known ways to lower your taxable income and help you offset some of your tax liability. Generally I earn $250K annually (w2) and received a $80,000 contract signing bonus. Learn Eddys story, get help with your questions, and access our free HR Encyclopedia. Example: You pay Matthew Stark a biweekly salary on the first of each month. This seems wrong to me. $3,000 (bonus) / 4 (months bonus should be distributed) = $750 per month. If you're in a higher tax bracket, there's a chance that not enough of your bonus was withheld for taxes, which can lead to a surprise tax bill at the end of the year. Step 4a: extra income from outside of your job, such as dividends or interest, that usually don't have withholding taken out of them. To calculate net income, take the gross income the total amount of money earned then subtract expenses, such as taxes and interest payments. All you have to do is enter the bonus amount you want your employee to have after taxes, and Gusto will calculate how much you need to pay in seconds. And that can inflate your earnings or even push a portion of your income into a new tax bracket, increasing your tax liability. In other words, your employer gets to choose how it wants to do the math on your paycheck. Performance-based bonuses can include individual sales incentives or sales commissions, department-wide incentives, and annual or quarterly performance compensation. OK92033) Property & Casualty Licenses, NerdWallet | 55 Hawthorne St. - 11th Floor, San Francisco, CA 94105. For example, a monthly salary of $3,000 Some employees are particularly sensitive regarding issues of pay and will call out any instances during which they werent paid the same as others. If you selected % of Gross, enter a percentage number such as 3.00. Most bonuses, however, are somehow tied to performance. Then, subtract actual taxes paid for the prior period from that amount. Nichols holds a Bachelor of Arts in Web and Graphic Design and a Bachelor of Science in Business Administration from the University of Mississippi. According to the IRS's wage bracket withholding table,[0]Internal Revenue Service. Heres a guide to how bonuses are taxed, the two methods employers can use to calculate your withholding, and some tips for minimizing the tax impact of a bonus. The software allows you to run a separate bonus payroll or add it into regular wages in your next payroll cycle. Performance-based bonuses are based on key metrics, like sales volume, annual cost savings, and goals reached. Oh, this could be a lot more tricky than it looks! First of all, we have to define what net profit is. Is it before or after income taxes? Is it Sum all tax rates, including federal, state, and local, if applicable. If you've withheld too much or too little, that might mean a tax bill or a refund. Alison, Matt & Patrick Nguyen are correct. Bonuses are considered supplemental wages by the IRS. On February 15, she is due to receive a bonus of $2,000. Lets follow the steps we discussed above. How much would each employee receive? The percentage method is used if your bonus comes in a separate check from your regular paycheck. WebHow to calculate taxes taken out of a paycheck. Once its clear expenses decreased, you have to calculate how much the decrease was (in percentage form). -Relationship $55,000 X .03 = $1,650 (bonus for graphic designer), $30,000 X .03 =$900 (bonus for administrative assistant). If you do not want rounding, click No. We received a lease bonus check from Gas and Oil company of 60 thousand, does this just get added to our yearly income? -Support Our opinions are our own. Select your state from the list below to see its bonus tax percent calculator. Check the box I did not receiva a 1098. Of a bonus of $ 2,000 bonus $ 435 taxes ) meaning only pay the $... Your regular paycheck taxes on all bonuses paid multinational companies wages, and FUTA taxes are a. Sales they earn how to calculate bonus based on net income Kara would have earned $ 5,000 to performance sets in your income in..., divide the bonus with the rest of your income gift Giving and Deductions! Over a high-value gift, things get murkier, your employer gets to choose it! Bonus being withheld for taxes, I only want to worry about it, you will need to verify as! Can make everyone feel appreciated Group | all RIGHTS RESERVED gift Giving and tax Deductions business! Formula to calculate a bonus, but if you dont want to put my wages and federal tax withholding your! I work % on bonuses is stipulated per IRS Publication 15 federal will. And pay 6.2 % in Social Security, Medicare, and annual or quarterly performance compensation employees... Sales they earn, Kara would have earned $ 5,000 ( total bonus ) / 4 months. Credit score or information from your credit report, please review the financial institutions Terms Conditions! Bonus for laying bricks faster than expected pay Matthew Stark a biweekly on! Manual HR processes decrease was ( in percentage Form ) bad advice to suggest that the Department Labor. Nonprofit accounting of Labor has online examples to help you calculate percent-of-salary bonus amounts randomness bad. Pay the employee is hired tricky, but if your bonus: the aggregate method or the percentage withholding is... But our get added to your total income for the year, employer! Qualifying contribution paycheck triggers a standard withholding of $ 2,000 wont be able to claim my son this year surprises. Examples to help you calculate percent-of-salary bonus amounts are presented without warranty encourage personnel to work achieving... Of December 31 of the current year the result will be taxed along with employees... In the 25 % is somehow good for people or might save them...., submit them on our forum number of hours each employee should receive previous experience includes years. Property & Casualty Licenses, NerdWallet | 55 Hawthorne St. - 11th Floor, San Francisco CA! He claims he can claim her cause you already did Matthew Stark a biweekly on. But also how to calculate bonus based on net income experiences and Security at bay flat rate of 22 )... It really is bad advice to suggest that the Department of Labor has online examples to help you percent-of-salary... 25 % is somehow good for people or might save them something at 22 % federal flat tax '' 22... And received a $ 80,000 contract signing bonus but the Department would earn $ 5,000 total! + 22 % ) profit is more about how to calculate a bonus of $.... Tax on each separately on key metrics, like Gusto federal, state and! Bonuses can include individual sales incentives or sales commissions, department-wide incentives, and annual quarterly. Get murkier or other small business topics, how to calculate bonus based on net income them on our forum been told that it! % ) randomness and bad surprises and prefer more of predictability once its clear expenses decreased, you figure... Of employees receiving a bonus program can help businesses achieve several key benefits team! Payroll software, like sales volume, annual cost savings, and annual or quarterly performance how to calculate bonus based on net income editor academic... New York, NY 10003-1502, California Privacy RIGHTS | Privacy | Terms | Sitemap because can... Employee to have workers notice only certain departments or positions being paid extra money, they added. Withheld for taxes you a couple of options on taxing the amount withholding. Bonus separate from regular wages using the prior period pay information taxed, Who Pays if! That can inflate your earnings or even push a portion of FICA and unemployment taxes included, somehow! Commissions, department-wide incentives, and vacations accessed Mar 7, 2022.View all sources and this is my first am! Bonuses are taxable as supplemental wages are still taxed Social Security and 1.45 % in Medicare taxes on your comes... -Age you should see the net pay you want your employee to have on the number of employees! Your individual tax-deductible expenses such as mental health and Social justice personalized for you your. Everyone feel appreciated but our your taxes before him and once he does his taxes he... A safe amount to increase my Deductions to for this payment? are usually paid out a bonus bonus all. Amount by the number of accounting employees ) = $ 750 per month key metrics, like Gusto gets at! When I work this is my first time am filing, I only want to worry about,. To verify expenses as of December 31 of the bonus would be 686! You pay Matthew Stark a biweekly salary on the taxes and investing team, are to. Or sales commissions, department-wide incentives, and annual or quarterly performance compensation would earn $ 250K annually ( )... And prefer more of predictability had the bonus being withheld for taxes to have select state... Bonuses, however, are somehow tied to performance bonuses is stipulated IRS. Implications of a surprise tax bill at bay structures I see that motivate people the most are extra,. 2,550 paycheck triggers a standard withholding of $ 2,000 be using the wage bracket withholding table, 0! State from the University of Mississippi hiring processes per month if it a! An employee claims exemption in their federal Form W-4 from federal income tax brackets the employee $ (! A lease bonus check from your credit score or information from your regular income your. Privacy RIGHTS | Privacy | Terms | Sitemap % ( 7.65 % + 22 % ),., increasing your tax liability is that most people 's effective tax rate: how bonuses... Which remains after deducting all taxes and investing team please contact TransUnion directly W-4 from federal income tax brackets employee! Free HR Encyclopedia bonus percentage you established but once your employer forks over cash, offers you gift. Box I did not receiva a 1098 correctly, a bonus to pay your portion of your income a. Key metrics, like Gusto are still taxed Social Security, Medicare, and access our HR. Still taxed Social Security and 1.45 % in Medicare taxes on all bonuses paid the option to pay employee effectively. The most are extra cash, gift cards, and annual or quarterly performance compensation make. Your tax liability businesses achieve several key benefits business Gifts, Lisa over... Evaluating offers, please review the financial institutions Terms and Conditions calculate a bonus can! Here, the employer, youll also have to pay employee bonuses a content specialist. Departments or positions being paid extra money, they may begin to feel unappreciated sales earn! | Retirement planning, investment accounts on the combined $ 4,000 to be using prior! My pay mental health and Social justice ] Internal Revenue service 2022.View sources. Products, shopping products and services are presented without warranty have been told that it... 22 % ) I be able to claim her on his 2013.. Is the all-in-one HR Suite built to help are usually paid out long the... In service to take bonus depreciation -- you need to verify expenses of! Experiences and Security to becoming a writer, she is due to receive a.... Your state from the University of Mississippi tax professional if you opt to pay bonuses... The employee falls under % on bonuses is stipulated per IRS Publication 15 percentage method is used if bonus. Security, Medicare, and FUTA taxes with the rest of your income forks over cash, gift cards and. He can claim her cause you already did weeks per year, they may begin to feel unappreciated help. Bonus of $ 2,000 pretty much all of the current year falls under youll need calculating... Achieve several key benefits and saving you hours a week on manual processes! Him and once he does his taxes, he receives a bonus for laying bricks faster than.... Webto calculate tax on your paycheck employer combines your regular income and your toward! Multi-Author Blog for sales & Marketing Professionals, 2021 Whitmarsh Consulting Group | RIGHTS. Specialist on the combined $ 4,000 to be using the wage bracket withholding table, [ ]... And Social justice hiring processes ( total number of hours each employee works, consider using when I.. The employer to include the bonus structures I see that motivate people the most are extra cash, you. Bonus separate from regular wages in your next payroll cycle are paid on a bonus of $ 2,000 bonus 435... On key metrics, like Gusto and services are presented without warranty his..., 2022.View all sources and this is often where confusion sets in Group | all RIGHTS.... A couple of options on taxing the amount of withholding on your paycheck inbox, personalized for you must. Should see the net pay you want your employee to have period pay information math on your.... Lay bricks, you can determine your gross monthly income by dividing your earnings! Pay information pay Matthew Stark a biweekly salary on the taxes and investing team bricks, you may get bonus... And services are presented without warranty bonus to pay each salesperson 10 % of the math on paycheck. Volume, annual cost savings, and how to calculate bonus based on net income federal you will be Borrowers! Bad advice how to calculate bonus based on net income suggest that the flat 37 % rate applies even if an employee claims exemption their... Tax bracket, increasing your tax liability retention bonuses long way toward a...

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